"In all societies, from societies that are very meagerly developed and have barely attained the dawnings of civilization, down to the most advanced and powerful societies, two classes of people appear: a class that rules and a class that is ruled. The first class, always the less numerous, performs all political functions, monopolizes power and enjoys the advantages that power brings, whereas the second, the more numerous class, is directed and controlled by the first." ― The Ruling Class, by Italian political scientist Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941)
Gaetano Mosca, an Italian sociologist and political theorist, is best known for his theory that all politically organized societies are governed by an organized minority, which he termed the "political class". According to Mosca, this minority, regardless of the formal structure of government—be it a monarchy, republic, or democracy—exercises real power because it is unified and capable of coordinated action, while the majority remains disorganized and fragmented. This principle is inevitable, as a small, cohesive group acting in concert can easily overcome a larger, uncoordinated population.
Mosca argued that the power of the minority stems not from numbers but from its organizational capacity, which allows it to make swift decisions and maintain internal cohesion. He illustrated this with the analogy that a hundred men acting in unison will triumph over a thousand individuals acting separately, simply because the smaller group can communicate and coordinate more effectively. This organizational advantage becomes more pronounced in large, complex societies, where the difficulty of organizing the majority increases significantly.
The ruling minority legitimizes its power through a "political formula"; a justification or ideology that aligns with the prevailing values of the society, such as divine right, tradition, or popular sovereignty. These formulas are not fixed; but evolve with historical and cultural conditions, and they serve both to maintain the elite's rule and to justify its actions. Mosca emphasized that the structure of power is not defined by legal or constitutional forms but by the actual social organization of those who govern.
Mosca's theory is distinct from other elitist models, such as C. Wright Mills' "power elite," as Mosca sought a universal explanation of political society rather than a critique of a specific historical moment. He also believed that elites are not necessarily hereditary; individuals from any social class could rise to power if they possessed the necessary organizational skills and ambition. In modern bureaucratic societies, the ruling class increasingly includes professional administrators and officials who manage the state's machinery.
